Abstract
InTthisTpaper,TITseekTtoTidentifyTwhichTfactorsTaffectTtheTSocio-EconomicTandTgenderTinequalityTregardingTtheTeducationTofTgirlsTandTboys,TasTwellTasofTwomenTandTmen,TacrossTtwoTcohortsTofTmarriedTwomenTinTBangladesh.TInTparticular,TITlookTatTtheTrelativeTimportanceTofTanTindividualTwoman’sTownTeducationalTbackgroundTandTthoseTofTherTspouseTandTotherTfamilyTmembersTinTshapingTherTattitudesT
towardTgenderTequalityTinTeducation.
InequalityTisTlikeTanTepidemicTforTaTcountryTwhichTdestroysTaTcountry’sTdevelopmentTnotTonlyTforTaTgenerationTbutTalsoTforTaTlongTperiodTofTtime.TAmongTallTkindsTofTinequalitiesTgenderTinequalityTisTtheTextremeToneTasTitTaffectsTallTotherTsectors.TAsT
womenThasTcontributionTinTallTsectors.TBringingTwomenTintoTtheTmainstreamTeconomic
activitiesTandTensuringTequalTopportunityTisToneTofTtheTmajorTtargetsTofTMillenniumT
DevelopmentTGoalsTasTpursuedTbyTtheTgovernmentTofTBangladesh.
Introduction
ITaimTtoTaddTtoTthisTbodyTofTworkTbyTlookingTatTchangesTinTattitudesTregardingTsomeTaspectsTofTSocioEconomicTandTgenderTinequalityTdueTtoTeducationTinTBangladeshTduringTaTperiodTofTrapidTsocialTtransformation.TThisTworkTisTofTparticularTsignificanceTforaTnumberTofTreasons.TFirstTwhileTinTdevelopedTcountriesTwithThighqualityTdatasets thereThaveTbeenTmanyTanalysesTofTgenderTnormsTandTattitudes,TinTdevelopingTcountrieswithTlessThigh-qualityTdataTthereThaveTbeenTrelativelyTfewTstudiesTonTgenderTnorms,TandTthoseTthatT
haveTbeenTconductedThaveTbeenTrestrictedTtoTsmallTsamplesTandTtoTtopicsTsuchTasTattitudesTregardingTreproductiveTdecision making,TsexTpreferencesTforTchildren,TandTviolenceTagainstTwomen.TInTaddition,TmostTofTtheTresearchTconductedTinTdevelopingTcountriesThasTfocusedTonTusingTattitudesTasTexplanatoryTvariablesTforTaTnumberTofToutcomes,TratherTthanTasToutcomeTvariablesTinTtheirTownTright.
PreviousTresearchTonTeducationTandTgenderTnormsThasTprimarilyTfocusedTonTtheTquestionTofTwhetherTeducationTisTaTliberalizingTinfluenceTorTaTconstraintTonTattitudesTregardingTgenderTequality.TTheTresultsTofTtheseTstudiesTare,TtoTsayTtheTleast,TequivocalT(KaneT1995).TITsituateTmyTanalysisTonTchangingTattitudesTregardingTgirl’sTeducationTwithinT
theToverallTcontextTofTeducationalTexpansionTinTBangladesh,TandTtheTdefinitionsTofTsex
rolesTandTexpectationsTinTtheTculture.TBecauseTITprovideTquantitativeTevidenceTonTtheTdeterminantsTofTgenderTeducationTnormsTinTBangladesh,TmyTworkTalsoTcomplementsT
therelatedTearlierTworkTbyTSchulerTandTcolleagues,TwhichTinvolvedTindepthTinterviewsTandTgroupTdiscussionsT(see,Te.g.,TSchulerTetTal.T2006T(andTtheTreferencesTtherein)).
BackgroundT
BangladeshTprovidesTanTinterestingTcontextTforTanTanalysisTofTtheTchangesTinTgenderTnormsTregardingTeducation.TTheTgrowthTinTaccessTtoTeducation,TandTespeciallyTinTaccessTtoTsecondaryTeducationTforTgirls,TmayTbeTBangladesh’sTmostTdramaticTachievementTinTtheTlastTtwoTdecades.TInTtheTareaTofTfemaleTsecondaryTeducation,TBangladeshTstandsToutTasTaTshiningTsuccessTstoryTamongTlow-incomeTcountries,TBangladesh’sTprogressTisTespeciallyTcommendableTbecauseTtheTgrowthTinTfemaleTeducationTtookTplaceTwithinTaTdemocraticTregime,TandTstartedTfromTaTveryTlowTbase.
FigureT1:TEnrollmentTratesTinTEducation
Table:T1TGrossTenrollmentTratesTofTboysTandTgirlsTbyTlevelTandTregion
Primary
(GradeT1-5)
LowerTSec.
(GradeT6-8)
Secondary
(GradeT9-10)
HigherTSecondaryT(11-12)
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
BarisalT
93.9
93.6
55.4
58.9
45.8
58.1
44.7
35
ChittagongT
83.5
84.5
48.1
58.2
37.2
49.9
34.6
32.8
DhakaT
86.1
84.5
52.7
58.4
62.2
66.6
32.3
33.3
KhulnaT
96.1
99.5
60.7
66.9
58.3
71.5
39.3
36.2
RajshahiT
85.5
91.5
53.5
70.3
50.3
57.5
38.2
33.4
SylhetT
83.2
85.7
57.1
36.3
39.7
58
29.1
28.5
Source:TBANBEIST(GovernmentTofTBangladesh),T2015/016
TheTgrowthTinTeducationTandTtheTaccompanyingTsocialTchangesThaveTprobablyTbeenTtheTmostTimportantTrecentTdevelopmentsTinTBangladesh,TbutTthereTareTothersTasTwell.TStartingTfromTaTveryTlowTbaseTofT9%,TfemaleTlaborTforceTparticipationTpickedTupTtoToverT22%TduringTtheTyearsT1993?2003.TWhile,TasTindicated,TtheTfemaleTlaborTparticipationThasTincreased,TtheTfemale-maleTgapTinTlaborTforceTparticipationT(LFP)ThasTalsoTincreasedTinTrelativeTtermsToverTtheTpastTfewTdecades:T
InT1990TtheTLFPTwasT61.7%TforTfemalesTandT88.4TforTmales,TbutTbyT2011TitThadTdecreasedTtoT57.2%TforTfemalesTandT84.3%TforTmalesT(WDIT2013).TEvocativeTimagesTofThundredsTofTyoungTgirlsTwalkingTeveryTmorningTtoTtheTgarmentTfactoriesThaveTbeenTetchedTintoTtheTpopularTimaginationTasTaTmetaphorTforTprogress.TInfantTmortalityThasTdeclinedTfasterTinTBangladeshTthanTinTanyTotherTcountryTinTSouthTAsia.TTheTtotalTfertilityTrateTtodayTisTlessTthanTone-thirdTofTtheTrateTfourTdecadesTago,ThavingTdeclinedTfromTaboutT6.9TinT1971TtoTaboutT2.2TinT2011T(WDIT2013).TMeanwhile,TtheTmicrocreditTrevolutionTsweepingTtheTcountrysideThasTgivenTwomenTvisibilityTandTgreaterTstatus.TBetterTwaterTandTsanitationTfacilitiesThaveTreducedTtheTdrudgeryTexperiencedTbyTmothers,TwhoTnowThaveTtimeTforTotherTactivities.TAnTinformationTandTcommunicationTboomThasTresultedTfromTtheTwidespreadTavailabilityTofTradios,Ttelevisions,TandTmobileTphones.TTheTexpansionTofTruralTroadsTandTofTelectrificationThaveTenabledTmanyTpeopleTtoTfindTworkTbeyondTtraditionalTlow-productivityTcottageTindustries.TTheTavailabilityTofTmoreTsecureTmodesTofTtransportThasTalsoTgivenTpeopleTgreaterTmobility,TallowingTmoreTwomenTtoTmoveToutTofTtheirTvillagesTtoTtakeTjobsTinTtheTcityT(HossainTandTBoseT2004;TWorldTBankT2008).
WhileTtheTprogressTdescribedTaboveTisTreal,TseriousTproblemsTremainTinTBangladesh,TandTnewTonesTareTsurfacing.TThus,TwhileTwomen’sTstatusThasTimprovedTdramaticallyTinTtheTlastTfewTdecades,TgenderTinequalitiesTpersistTinTmanyTareas,TsuchTasTinTaccessTtoTmarkets,TpoliticalTforums,TandThigh-techTservices.TMoreover,TthereTareTsharpTdisparitiesTbasedTonTanTindividual’sTplaceTofTresidence,TwealthTquintile,TandTethnicity.TTheTpracticeTofTdowryTpaymentsTisTonTtheTrise,TandTisToneTofTtheTreasonsTwhyTtheTaverageTgirlTisTmarriedToffTbyTtheTtimeTsheTisT15TyearsTold.
ITdescribedTaboveTtheTextentTtoTwhichTeducationThasTexpandedTinTBangladesh.TITalsoTnotedTthatTeducationalTopportunitiesTforTgirlsThaveTchangedTtheTconservativeTmarriageTmarket,TasTincreasingTnumbers
